Chaining Forward and Chaining Backwards

When teaching life skills such as dressing, grooming or perhaps even cooking, a special educator often has to break down the task to be taught in small discrete steps. The first step for teaching a life skill is to complete a task analysis. Once the task analysis is complete, the teacher needs to decide how it is to be taught: chaining forward, or chaining backward? Chaining Whenever we do a complete, multistep task, we complete the component parts in a specific order (though there can be some flexibility.) We start at some point and complete each step, one step at a time. Since these tasks are sequential we refer to teaching them step-by-step as chaining. Chaining Forward When chaining forward, the instructional program starts with the beginning of the task sequence. After each step is mastered, instruction begins at the next step. Depending on how severely a students abilities are compromised by their disability will depend on what level of support the student will need for each step of instruction. If a child is unable to learn the step by having it modeled and then imitating it, it may be necessary to provide hand over hand prompting, fading instructional prompting to verbal and then gestural prompts. As each step is mastered, the student completes the step after begin given a verbal command (prompt?) and then begins instruction in the next step. Each time the student has completed the part of the tasks they have he or she has mastered, the instructor will complete the other steps, either modeling or hand over handing the tasks in the order you will be teaching the student. An Example of Chaining Forward Angela is pretty severely cognitively disabled. She is learning life skills with therapeutic support staff (TSS) aid provided by the county mental health organization. Rene (her aide) is working on teaching her independent grooming skills. She can wash her hands independently, with the simple command, Angela, its time to wash your hand. Wash your hands. She has just begun to learn how to brush her teeth. She will follow this forward chain: Angela gets the pink toothbrush from her cup and the toothpaste from the top vanity drawer.When she has mastered this step, she will unscrew the cap, she will wet the bristles and put the paste on the bristles.When she has mastered opening the toothpaste and squirting it on the brush, the child needs to open his, her mouth wide and begin to brush the top teeth. I would divide this into several steps and teach it over a couple of weeks: Up and down on the bottom and top on the side opposite the dominant hand, up and down on the same side, up and down in front and back of the front teeth. Once the whole sequence is mastered, the student can move on to:Rinsing the toothpaste out, front and back. This step will have to be modeled: there is no way to hand over hand this skill.Replace the toothpaste cap, put the cap, brush and rinsing cup away. An Example of Backward Chaining Jonathon, aged 15, lives at a residential facility. One of the goals in his residential IEP is to do his own laundry. In his facility, there is a two to one ratio of staff to students, so Rahul is the evening staff member for Jonathon and Andrew. Andrew is also 15, and also has a laundry goal, so Rahul has Andrew watch as Jonathon does his laundry on Wednesday, and Andrew does his laundry on Friday. Chaining Laundry Backwards Rahul completes each of the steps Jonathon will need to complete the laundry, modeling and reciting each step. i.e. First we separate the colors and the whites.Next we will put the dirty whites in the washing machine.Now we measure the soap (Rahul might choose to have Jonathon open the soap container if twisting off lids is one of Jonathons already acquired skills.)Now we choose the water temperature. Hot for whites, cold for colors.Now we turn the dial to regular wash.Now we close the lid and pull out the dial.Rahul gives Jonathon a couple of choices for waiting: Looking at books? Playing a game on the iPad? He may also stop Jonathon from his game and check out where the machine is in the process.Oh, the machine is done spinning. Lets put the wet clothing in the dryer.Lets set the drying for 60 minutes.(When the buzzer goes off.) Is the laundry dry? Lets feel it? Yes, lets take it out and fold it. At this point, Jonathon would assist in taking the dry laundry out of the dryer. With assistance, he would fold the clothing, matching socks and stacking white underwear and t-shirts in the correct pile s. In backward chaining, Jonathon would observe Rahul do the laundry and would begin by assisting with removing the laundry and folding it. When he has reached an acceptable level of independence (I wouldnt demand perfection) you would back up, and have Jonathon set the dryer and push the start button. After that is mastered, he would back up to removing the wet clothing from the washer and putting it in the dryer. The purpose of backward chaining is the same as that of forward chaining: to help the student gain independence and mastery in a skill that he or she can use for the rest of their life. Whether you, as the practitioner, choose forward or backward chaining will depend on the childs strengths and your perception of where the student will be most successful. His or her success is the real measure of the most effective way to chain, either forward, or backward.

Causes of Teen Pregnancy Free Essays

Causes of Teen Pregnancy Lack of sex education is the most important but not the only cause of teenage pregnancy. Following are some other teenage pregnancy causes that can not be ignored. First is the psychological factors. We will write a custom essay sample on Causes of Teen Pregnancy or any similar topic only for you Order Now The immature and irresponsible behavior arising due to complex teenage psychology is another important cause of teenage pregnancies. Teenagers often go through a number of emotions because of their own transition from childhood and peer pressure. In addition, weak family relationships fail to provide the emotional support that teenagers require. This lack of attention and affection from family resulting in depression forces them to seek love and support from other people, especially members of the opposite sex. The next cause of teen pregnancy is the adolescent sexual behavior. As adolescence marks the onset of sexual maturity, it is but obvious that both the sexes show interest in and explore the much hyped topics of sex, thank to the irresponsible and careless approach of mass media. This makes them vulnerable to teenage sex and pregnancy without adequate sex education. Lack of sexual education causes teens to get abortions as they ultimately realize their inability to bear the responsibilities of being a parent at such a young age. The another cause is lack of discipline and control. Factors like alcohol and substance abuse accompanied by unrestricted interaction with the opposite sex can ignite the sparks of lust and passion in youngsters very easily ultimately leading to teenage pregnancy. Nonetheless, at times, parents put too many restrictions of their children, especially girls to protect them from dangers. This overprotection gives rise to frustration and a feeling of not being loved and cared for. Thus, balance is the key to avoid this problem. Moreover, sexual abuse of teenage girls is also one of the most disgraceful causes of teenage pregnancy. Sexual relationships between teenage girls and older men are more likely to end up in teenage pregnancy as compared to sexual relationships between teenage boys and girls. Last but not least is the socio-economic factors. Childhood environment, lower educational and income levels have also been associated with high rates of teenage pregnancy because of negligence towards birth control methods. How to cite Causes of Teen Pregnancy, Essay examples

Leadership and Teambuilding- Free-Samples- Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Summarize the results of the relevant self-assessments in your learning journal. Answer: Leadership Leadership is viewed differently by different people globally and occurs under different circumstances. Individual have been part of leadership in some way. Leadership is the ability to lead. Leadership can be inborne as well as acquired through practice. For example, it could be political related, community, religious or organizational leadership. Despite its ubiquity, leadership plays an important role in all aspects of todays society. Research exploring about leadership has been discussed by theorist and practitioners in the past decades. In fact, writers have in their lifetime been striving to identify characteristics of what good leadership is. By late 1960s, it evidently became clear that no exclusive leadership style for all situations was available. There are historical definitions of leadership as well as theories. Older theories are addressed by three level model which include Public, Private and Personal leadership. Scouller (2011), referred Public leadership as the simultaneous actions that leaders take to influence a group of people and Private leadership as dealing with individual separately due to their diverse characteristics, while Personal leadership as the overall behavior of a leader. According to Gachter et all., (2012), in order to reach an ultimate goal, a leader works closely and alongside those they lead. Therefore, in the following paragraphs, I will discuss various areas pertaining to leade rship in an organization. In regard to companies, leadership is determined by culture and goals that are set by an organization. Organization offer different leadership styles depending on tasks allocated to different departments and their needs; Autocratic, Participative, Transactional and Transformational. However, to understand how effective leadership is achieved, the problems in an organization have implications and must be addressed through training. Participative leadership, values the contribution of all the stakeholders but the final decision rests entirely to the participative leader. The missions in an organization are defined by leaders, but leaders must as well coordinate all activities and motive others to achieve the mission requirements. Additionally, the interaction between the team leader and the team must be constant. The efforts of the members are appreciated and respected by their leaders. This serves as an indication that a team is comprised of a leader and his team mates who are supportive and committed towards achieving their objectives. Mullins Constable (2013) states that it is important for team work in an institution. Transactional leadership, rewards or punishes team members based on how they perform. For example, an organization rewarding employee of the year by given them vouchers to shop anywhere that suits them best. Managers using transactional leadership must be in a position to formulate a plan and implement the plan that works in the systems that are already in existence within an institution and which leads to motivating others. As a result, employees who are motivated by their leaders show creativity enhancement. However, the relationship between the leaders and employees become tense when leaders adopt the behavior of monitoring and controlling employees (Zhou Ren, 2011). Transformational leadership, depends on the level of communication from the management to employees. Hence, for the success of an institution, communication is paramount. The discussions and debates surrounding transformational leadership are still ongoing but just to mention a few. Transformational leaders stimulate interest among employees, motivate and empower them. Transformational leadership looks at ways leaders motivate employees through communication and engaging them in the process of work. Sarros et al. (2008), indicates that transformational leadership is connected with environment and that it contributes in transforming behaviors, activates identification as well as social identification with the group. For example, a leader delegates smaller tasks while they focus on the bigger picture within the organization. Autocratic leadership, managers possess the authority and impose strict rules on employees. They are the final decision makers without the contribution of others. It is characterized by controlling, self-centered, and close-minded style of leadership (Bass, 2009). For example, Cuba is under autocratic leadership. In conclusion, leadership is dynamic and it is based on the relationship between the leaders and followers. However, for leadership growth and development, it is important to be aware of the weaknesses and strengths of a leader. Leaders, on the other hand, must learn how to motivate their employees. References Bass, B. M., Bass, R. (2009). The Bass handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications. New York: Simon Schuster Gchter, S., Nosenzo, D., Renner, E., Sefton, M. (2012). Who Makes a Good Leader? Cooperativeness, Optimism, and Leading?By?Example.Economic Inquiry,50(4), 953-967. Mullins, C. and Constable, G. (2013). Leadership and teambuilding in primary care. Oxford: Radcliffe. Sarros, J.C., B.K. Cooper and J.C. Santora, 2008. Building a climate for innovation through transformational leadership and organizational culture. J. Leadership Organ. Stud., 15: 145-158 Scouller, J. (2011).The three levels of leadership: How to develop your leadership presence, knowhow, and skill. Management Books 2000. Zhou, J. and R. Ren, 2011. Striving for Creativity: Building Positive Context in the Workplace. In: Cameron, K.S. and G.M. Spreitzer (Eds.), Ch. 8, the Oxford Handbook of Positive Organizational Scholarship. Oxford University Press, Oxford

College Sport Commercialization Essays - , Term Papers

College Sport Commercialization "I'm going to have to let you go," says coach Tim Koth to another former player as he adds another notch to his belt. "It's nothing personal, I like you," he says, "but I have to look at this as a business." Is that what it is? I always looked at sport as an outlet, or even an opportunity; but sport is a business, that has become the cruel reality of modern day sport. This paper will discuss various aspects and show different examples of some ways in which this fact is apparent. I am a unit, specifically, a mere employee within a corporation earning just around four thousand dollars per year. Quincy University (as well as other universities) represents the corporation; it is because of Quincy University that I will never see my four thousand dollars per year. The volleyball team, and other teams belonging to the corporation, are the manufacturers...the moneymakers. So when I, or any other employee, is not working out efficiently, then the boss needs to "let me go." As much as they (meaning, the coaches) might say that they care for the individual, their care is only skin deep. Every individual on a team is expendable, and every individual, at one point or another, will be replaced. Coaches will typically form relationships with their players on an authoritative level. The coaches will normally develop a method in which they control nearly every aspect of the player's life (Sage 149). It can be anything from eating habits, extra curricular activities, and training for the associated sport, to such things as dating behaviors and other social characteristics of the normal life of a college student...it's a trap. This is the situation: a high school student with an exceptional athletic background and satisfying grades is recruited to a division one school with a healthy scholarship to play basketball. He accepts the offer and signs his National Letter of Intent which declares that if the student wishes to play for another institution he must first take a full year off from playing his designated sport. In that effect, the student athlete is bound to this institution; however, the institution is not bound to the athlete (Eitzen 111). The student has no qualms about signing this piece of paper; he feels that this is just a small price to pay in the way of higher education. After the first year of college, however, the student finds that he is incapable of competing at such a high level, and what once was a way to pay for the greater part of his education has become his downfall. His contract is non-renewable, non-negotiable; the once caring coaching staff has "let him go." Since signing his letter of intent, he has no chance at playing basketball for even a division two or three school, and is left with no way to pay for his education...it's a trap. Colleges should, in the future, offer two to four year scholarships to exemplify their commitment to athletes as student representatives (Eitzen 118). In college, the athlete considers himself or herself to be an elite, which is true based on a table of progression within the National Federation of State High School Associations data, stating that only five percent of all high school athletes are able to carry their athletic career into a collegiate level (Sage 52). This is one example of the business aspect of sport. If this were not true, then anyone that wanted to play in a particular sport, could. College sport has grown from simple intramural and recreational facets of life to large-scale commercial entertainment. We have come to an era in which sports are not only a part of our everyday life, but they almost control us. The topic arises in nearly every conversation, example: "how ?bout them Bears?!" The mention of a sporting team is a means of casual conversation, an icebreaker, and even has certain politics involved as well. Then you have your schools, the corporations, which have come to rely on sports as a means of attracting more students and other gratuities (i.e. major endorsements and other various sponsorships). One can be sure that nobody goes to Ohio State because of its outstanding fine arts division. Ohio State is first known as a competitive football producer, it is realized secondly as an educational institution. Ohio State, because of its past successes, is enthusiastically endorsed by the Nike Corporation and also has an enrollment of well over thirty thousand students. There is a buzz that resonates

Cushing’s Syndrome Essay Example

Cushing’s Syndrome Essay Example Cushing’s Syndrome Paper Cushing’s Syndrome Paper Prolonged, extensive and inapt exposure to extreme glucocorticoids gives rise to Cushing’s syndrome. These glucocorticoids include topical as well as inhaled ones. This syndrome is a hormone problem, which is also called hypercortisolism additionally happens when the body is making a great deal of cortisol. If left untreated, this syndrome will result to a considerable rate of morbidity and mortality. When its signs and symptoms are florid, its diagnosis is uncomplicated. Incidence of Cushing’s syndrome is dependent on the population being studied. Prevalence of this syndrome ranges from 0. 7 to 2. 4 million population per year (Newell-Price et al, 2006). It is suggested by new data available that this syndrome is more common than it was formerly thought. There is a reported incidence of Cushing’s syndrome being 2% and 5% of those patients screened with type 2 diabetes; particularly those who had poor blood glucose control and had hypertension. These studies proved the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome not based on its clinical manifestation but based on its patient’s metabolic control improvement after the intervention of clinical measures for Cushing’s syndrome. Roughly 1 in 500,000 and a projected 10 to 15 of every million people are affected with Cushing’s syndrome each year. Cortisol is a hormone that has a number of essential functions. It sustains the body when it is faced with physical stress. It is also the hormone responsible for preserving the blood pressure within normal limits when there is blood loss due to accidents. The body makes more cortisol during stress brought about by physical illness as well as psychological problems. This hormone is also vital in the body’s metabolism (Health Source, 2008). The brain and pituitary gland are in charge as to how much cortisol the body makes. This hormone is particularly produced in the adrenal glands. These glands are the two small glands located on top of each kidney. Too much body’s production of cortisol may be a consequence of having a tumor (benign or malignant) in any of the glands. Widespread and frequent tumors are pituitary adenoma and adrenal adenoma. In some instances, tumors from other parts of the body may also cause an increase in the amount of cortisol that the body produced. Oftentimes, these tumors are in the lungs, thyroid and pancreas. Although this syndrome may be brought about by the body’s increase production of it due to tumors, most incidence of this syndrome is due to an increased, extreme and lengthy consumption of cortisone medications. Cortisol has a natural anti-inflammatory function. Physicians prescribed cortisol to treat and manage diseases where inflammation is the major dilemma. These diseases include asthma, rheumatoid arthritis as well as lupus. A familiar example of a cortisol medication is prednisone. These medications as a group are well known as corticosteroids, glucocorticoids, or steroids (Health Source, 2008). This medication is also utilized in preventing the rejection of transplanted organs. In cases like this, this medication may then be taken all throughout the particular patient’s lifetime. Signs and Symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome Being vigilant of the early signs and symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome is very important for its early detection, diagnosis and management. Recognizing its early mental manifestations and demonstrations will avert frustrations and spare patients a number of morbidity. When typical physical signs of Cushing’s arise, patients are already suffering enormously. The following early signs of Cushing’s syndrome are as follows: being depressed, irritable (Cushing’s patients illustrates themselves as having a â€Å"short fuse†), experiences insomnia, decreased / loss of libido, complains of memory problem especially impaired short-term memory and failure to focus attention and maintain their usual concentration (Kubetin, 2000). Symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome include the presentation of a moon facie. An increased of fat in the abdomen, trunk area and upper back also persists causing a buffalo hump look. The most distinguished physical manifestation of Cushing’s syndrome from that of obesity is the presentation of protein wasting-presence of thin skin. Patients may show skin bruising as their skin easily gets bruised. Stretch marks may be common in the abdomen, breasts and thighs. Women may experience an increased body hair and may have an irregular and even cessation of menstrual periods. Also, excess cortisol inclines to an elevated blood pressure. With this, patients may also experience high blood pressure. Increased incidence of occult Cushing’s syndrome is found in overweight and in patients with type 2 diabetes (Fonseca, 2004). Since an increased in cortisol can cause type 2 diabetes (non-insulin dependent); symptoms of diabetes like increased and frequency of urination, tiredness and exhaustion and blurred vision may also be manifested (Chiodini et al, 2007). Purple striae, osteoporosis, muscle atrophy and kidney stones are more numerous and common in men. Male and female patients presented the same gonadal dysfunction. Decreased bone-mineral density was revealed as one of the side effects of glucocorticoid use. Bone loss is worse in primary adrenal Cushing’s syndrome compared to the pituitary-dependent Cushing’s syndrome (Newell-Price et al, 2006). Moreover, Cushing’s syndrome attributed from production of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) from solid tumors also causes life-threatening hypercortisolemia. These tumors may be bronchial carcinoids, lung squamous cell carcinoma or even carcinoid from the duodenum. All these tumors presented ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone producing cortisol leading to excess cortisol in the body(Uecker Janzow, 2005). Diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome Physicians (health care providers) will do a complete and thorough physical examination and history when obvious signs and symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome is presented by the patient. Signs and symptoms like: an increased blood pressure, thin skin bruises, buffalo hump look (fat in trunk and abdomen and thinning of arms and legs) and moon facie will be given a significant account. Patient will be assessed for any usage/treatment of steroid medications. There is an uncomplicated diagnosis once the patient presented the features and manifestations stated above and steroid management and therapy is being used. If the patient is not taking any cortisol/steroid medications at all, the following tests may be crucial and necessary: skull X-ray, MRI, CT scan, 24-hr urine cortisol test, dexamethasone suppression test and midnight cortisol assessment or late-night salivary cortisol(Health Source 2008). Biochemical verification of the hypercortisolaemic state must be recognized prior to any effort of obtaining differential diagnosis. This is done to prevent any misdiagnosis leading to unsuitable treatment and poor management (Newell-Price et al, 2006). No single test is perfect for the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Since each test has different sensitivities, the use of several tests is beneficial. The skull X-ray, MRI and CT scan are ordered to rule out tumors in the pituitary and other parts of the body. 24-hour urine cortisol test is done to verify if the body is making excessive amounts of cortisol. The binding proteins are saturated by excess circulating cortisol whereby it is then sent out in the urine as free cortisol. This is a straightforward evaluation of circulating free cortisol. This circulating free cortisol is biologically effective. Results showing 4x greater than its upper limit of its normal value is indicative of Cushing’s syndrome. The dexamethasone suppression test is done to prove and confirm the extra cortisol produced by the body is from the pituitary tumor or a tumor existing from other part of the body. There are two tests that are commonly used: the 48-hr or the overnight dexamethasone suppression test. For the 48-h suppression test, 0. 5mg dexamethasone is given every six hours x 4 times. Serum cortisol measurement is obtained during the first and last administration of dexamethasone. For the overnight dexamethasone test, 1mg is administered at midnight and the serum cortisol measurement is obtained the following morning. To rule out Cushing’s syndrome, the concentration of serum cortisol should not exceed 50nmol in either of the two tests mentioned above. Studies revealed that this test sometimes gives false-positive results. It is important to repeat this test as well as include other investigations if medical doubts remain high. Individuals with Cushing’s syndrome have no normal cortisol circadian rhythm. Midnight plasma cortisol concentration not exceeding 50 nmol/L rules out Cushing’s syndrome. In addition, salivary cortisol signifies the amount of free circulating cortisol. This screening is greatly appropriate due to its effortless collection of sample. Saliva is also stable in room temperature thus making it more suitable screening method. This test had been proven to be a good screening method based on its non-invasiveness and diagnostic performance (Cardoso et al, 2009). Once a diagnosis is established, apt initiation of medication therapy should then be made. The treatment and management of Cushing’s syndrome is dependent on the amount of extra cortisol in the body. Treatment of Cushing’s syndrome If the cause of the extra cortisol in the body is just due to the administration of cortisol medications, the physician may just lower the dosage of cortisol taken. In other cases, physicians may change the frequency of treatment. Every day dose may then be changed to every other day. If the body itself is making the excess cortisol, treatment includes medical therapy to lower cortisol and may also require surgery, chemotherapy and radiation to remove and treat the tumor. Medications like Metyrapone, Ketoconazole and Mitotane are prescribed to lower cortisol . The mechanism of action of these medications directly inhibits the synthesis and secretion of cortisol in the adrenal glands. These drugs may not be as efficient for long-term management of the syndrome. These medications are prescribed primarily as a preparation prior to the upcoming surgical procedure or as an adjunctive management post surgery (Newell-Price et al, 2006). Transsphenoidal surgery is done to remove the tumor from the pituitary gland without harming the pituitary function. Its results showed 60% to 80% of initial remission rate. If the disease persists, urgent reoperation is conducted. Ongoing requirement of alternative therapies are needed, as this procedure does not promise possible recurrences. Pituitary radiotherapy may then be required for persistent hypercortisolism after transsphenoidal surgery. The existing treatment of choice for Cushing’s syndrome is laparoscopic surgery for unilateral adrenal adenomas. The prognosis of this procedure is good, however, the results are uniformly unfortunate for patients with adrenocortical carcinomas. Adrenocortical carcinomas occasionally present metastases. Patients are also given a five-year survival duration. In addition, total bilateral removal of the adrenal glands produces rapid and great results in decreasing the clinical manifestations of patients. However, patients requiring a unilateral removal of the adrenal glands have the most excellent recorded results (Poulin et al, 2003). The need for a lifetime therapy of corticosteroids and glucocorticoids will be needed after the removal of both adrenal glands. Laparoscopic adrenal procedures give low morbidity that’s why this is considered as the main treatment for patients with Cushing’s syndrome. Some clinicians promote pituitary radiotherapy together with adrenalectomy to decrease the risk of Cushing’s syndrome. Prevention of Cushing’s syndrome It is really important to seek medical attention right away if one is taking steroid medications and are showing signs and symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome. Blood pressure as well as blood sugar levels should also be checked regularly. Individuals should be knowledgeable in terms of the medications they are taking and its side effects. The use of non-steroidal medications in managing inflammatory diseases should be given priority first prior to the use of steroids. References Cardoso, E. M. L. , Aggreger, A. L. , Tumilasci, O. , R. Contreras, L. N. (2009). Diagnostic value of salivary cortisol in Cushing’s syndrome. Endocrinology 70. 4, p516. Chiodini, I. , Adda, G. , Scillitani, A. Coletti, F. (2007). Cortisol secretion in patients with type 2 diabetes: relationship with chronic complications. Diabetes Care, 30, 83. Fonseca, V. , (2004). Occult Cushing’s syndrome. Diabetes Care, 27:5, 1253. Health Source – Consumer edition. (1 January 2008). Cushing’s syndrome. Kubetin, S. K. (2000). Early signs of Cushing’s. OB GYN News. International Medical News Group. Newell-Price, J. , Bertagna, X. , Grossman, A. Nieman, L. K. (2006). Cushing’s syndrome. The Lancet, 367, 1605. Poulin, E. C. , Schlachta, C. M. , Burpee, S. E. , Pace, K. T. Mamazza, J. (2003). Laparoscopic adrenalectomy: pathologic features determine outcome. Canadian Journal of Surgery, 46, 340-345. Uecker, J. M. Janzow, M. T. (2005). A case of Cushing syndrome secondary to ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone producing carcinoid of duodenum. The American Surgeon, 71, 445-446.

History and Political Science Exam Questions Essay

History and Political Science Exam Questions - Essay Example The case study countries can be said to relatively conform to the ideal model of liberal democracy. The three constitutional forms mentioned above are depicted in the case study countries. Political competitiveness is observed in the U.S, Nigeria, France and Russia. Elections are held after a specified period of time, and constitutional provisions allow for free and fair elections. Spain on the other hand practices democracy through a constitutional monarchy. While such a political process may not be competitive, transparency in governance is provided for by political laws. Q2 The growth and development of the civil society is an important aspect of the larger population within a country or a state. The management of human capital in the civil service is primarily undertaken by the civil society, and it therefore accounts for the major needs of the larger society. The development of the civil society and its influence to the state are intertwined. A developed civil society is one tha t accounts for the diversity and dynamisms realized in the state and one that further seeks to match this trend with the performance of the state. It therefore stands a strong ground to significantly influence the state. Q3 Centralization of legislation is the basis upon which unitary states function. This is form of legislature is however not necessarily the best in the contemporary world. Political systems and governments seek to uphold efficiency and effectiveness of governments, thereby delegating legislation duties. The concentration of authority and power to a single unit of governance is longer deemed as an aspect of democracy. As a result, political systems and governments of the modern times tend to create organs of governance that function just as the overhead arm of government. Decentralized legislature is thus a key defining factor of democracy. EXAM 2 Q1 The Rational Actor Model makes four assumptions that fail to conform to the real world phenomena. As a result, the us e of this model in the evaluation and assessment of foreign relations is limited, and to a more extent unrealistic. The model assumes that governments are unitary in nature, cost and benefit analysis is the mode of policy formulation, actors execute decisions faithfully and ineffective policies are optimized through adjustment (Held, 2006, p.329). These assumptions are unrealistic since they do not account for the ulterior motives of actors in foreign relations. On the same note, policy formulation keep conflicting with other policies already in place, and therefore optimality of policies is not realistic. Q2 Foreign policy making is subject to both rational processes and political influences. The extent to which these two factors affect foreign policy formulation and implementation is crucial in determining whether the goals of foreign policy reflect political interests. Foreign policies are formulated and implemented by states that identify foreign relations issues that need to be addressed by these policies. Due to this aspect, the rationality of foreign policy making is lost. This is due to the fact that the emerging foreign policies reflect collaborative political interests, and are therefore deemed to serve purposes that are beneficial to the formulating agencies even when the rationality of these policies is questionable. EXAM 3 Q1 States are endowed with powers within their jurisdiction to formulate and implement policies, among them

Short answers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Short answers - Essay Example An economist would advice a firm making accounting profits to close down because accounting profits is arrived at by subtracting only explicit costs from the total revenue. This rejects implicit costs hence inaccuracy of the profits (Aspers, 2011). (b) Why normal profit is the long run outcome for a firm under perfect competition When a firm is making economic profits, other firms will find the markets competitive hence mass entry into the market. This causes the supply curve to shift to the right, which results into a drop of the prices hence profits, are cancelled. The firm will in the end exhibit normal profits as an outcome under perfect competition (Aspers, 2011). (c) Characteristics of both monopolistic and monopoly competition, their advantages and disadvantages Characteristics of monopolistic competition are; there exist a large number of buyers and sellers, they exhibit price differentiation, free entry and exit of firms and high selling costs are incurred. Monopoly on the o ther hand exhibits characteristics such as the existence of only one firm in the market; they are price takers since they are the only producers. They have the advantage of controlling the whole market and therefore dictate the prices. The only disadvantage is that they are constrained by their own demand curves. Monopolistic case has several advantages; the most peculiar is that they are able to command a large market base. The market is disadvantaged in that stiff competition may threaten its operations in the market (Aspers, 2011). 4. (a) Graph of Fiscal policy and deflationary gap Deflationary gap happens when the actual output (Y) is below the natural output (Yn); this is as shown in the figure above. To correct the deflationary gap expansionary fiscal policy has to be used. The government does this through increasing government spending; alongside this, the government taxation has to be reduced. The result of employing the expansionary fiscal policy acts to shift the aggregate demand curve to coincide with the natural output and therefore real GDP is increased. Deflationary gap is caused when the investment spending goes down hence it is simply solved when the government increases it investment spending such as spending on infrastructure (Buti, 2003). (b) How fiscal and monetary used to address deflationary gap affects balance of payment Fiscal policy tools used to such as increased taxation will make the costs of local goods to be expensive. When the local goods become expensive balance shifts from favoring importation. When imports are more than exports, there is unfavorable balance of payment, which is harmful to the economy. In addition, monetary policies to correct deflationary gap is that aimed at increasing money supply, which leads to an increase in prices. Increase in prices causes local goods to be equally expensive leading to increased importation hence unfavorable balance of payment. Such negative impacts of balance of payment occur when the economy is at the helm of growth (Buti, 2003). 6. (a) Reasons for holding money There are three major reasons for holding money; transactionery motive, precautionary motive and speculative motive. For transactionery motive, money is held to undertake daily transactions mostly on basics. Money is also held to handle any future unfortunate occurrences anticipated in the future. Speculators are investors who anticipate that assets will be attractive in the near future hence hold money to take advantage of such (Dobeck, MF &